Domestic violence in mature women in the United Kingdom A review of the literature

Abstract Domestic violence (DV) impacts considerably on the long-term health and emotional wellbeing of affected individuals. Although the literature offers some insight into the span and nature of domestic abuse amongst the mature population in the UK, at present there is little obtainable data concerning DV in mature women specifically. This gap in knowledge is increasingly being recognised as a major shortfall in knowledge and understanding in society, especially for those responsible for the support and care of victims. Although the research in this area is limited, the work already done to date suggests that matured women’s experiences of DV are markedly different from those experienced by younger people and that these differences have not been sufficiently acknowledged. For example, mature women have different barriers that stop them reporting abuse, such as physical limitations due to older age. As the ageing population in the UK increases, national policy initiatives have started to recognise DV as a national issue for mature women. It is essential that healthcare professionals are able to identify DV and understand the exact experiences and needs of mature women that are affected by DV in order to prevent future incidents and better empower women in violent relationships. The aim of this literature review therefore is threefold: (a) to present a complete review of the impact of DV on matured women mainly within the framework of health, (b) to explore particular barriers in recognizing and reporting DV and (c) to emphasize the gaps in our awareness and understanding from a policy and care provision viewpoint. A systematic approach to a review of the literature was used to identify key literature and available evidence relating to DV among mature women. Introduction The Department of Health (2000) has defined DV as â€Å"a continuum of behaviour ranging from verbal abuse, through coercion and bullying, controlling behaviour, physical and sexual attack, to rape and even killing.†DV can take many forms. The most common of these include physical, sexual, verbal and financial abuse (Women’s Aid, 2007). Physical abuse typically involves any kind of physical harm such as pushing, kicking or the use of a weapon against another individual. Sexual abuse includes using force or threats to pressure a partner into unwanted sexual acts, whilst verbal abuse includes more psychological elements such as persistently attacking a partner’s self esteem through name calling. Financial abuse usually involves withholding money from a partner or forcibly taking over a partner’s assets or financial accounts (Women’s Aid, 2007). In 2012, 1.2 million women suffered from DV (Home Office, 2013). However, fewer than 1 in 4 individuals who suffer from DV will report this (Home Office, 2013) and therefore the estimation of DV in the UK is likely to be grossly underestimated. Thirty-one percent of the funding to DV charities from local authorities was cut between 2010/11 to 2011/12, a reduction from ?7.8 million to ?5.4 million (data obtained using Freedom of Information Act requests by the False Economy project, and analysed by the research team). The National Violence against Women Survey (NVAWS) states that about 1.5 million women are raped or physically assaulted by an intimate partner yearly (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). The Bureau of Justice Statistics Crime Data Brief, which measured only physical assaults, concluded that â€Å"there were 691,710 nonfatal violent victimizations committed by current or former spouses, boyfriends, or girlfriends against victims during 2001(Rennison, and Planty, 2003). Of these c ases, 85% were against women (Rennison and Planty, 2003). The NVAWS also found that 22.1% of women surveyed, compared to 7.4 percent of men, and reported being physically assaulted by a current or former partner in their lifetime (Rennison and Planty, 2003). In the United Kingdom, national policy has started to identify DV as a concern for mature women. Subsequently, the Government has put policies in place so that healthcare and social professionals are able to identify cases of DV. For example, funding of nearly ?40 million has been allocated to specialist support services and help-lines until 2015 and the piloting of a domestic violence disclosure scheme that gives individuals the right to ask about any violent criminal offences carried out by a new partner (Home Office, 2013). An estimated 27,900 women have had to be turned away by the first refuge service that they approached in the last year because there was no space, according to new figures from Women’s Aid (2012). These figures demonstrate that services are under some strain to deal with the large amount of DV cases in the UK. Prolonged episodes of DV can result in the development of mental health problems such as depression, panic attacks and mental breakdown (Roberts et al., 1998; Astbury et al., 2000). . Women often find it difficult and challenging to communicate about the psychological abuse they suffer during DV and often prefer to suffer in silence than complain about it (Home Office, 2013). This may have resulted in creating a barrier to finding data on mature victims of domestic violence. Abused women are three and a half times more likely to be suicidal than non-abused women (Golding, 1999). Furthermore, the World Health Organization (WHO, 2005) indicates that domestic violence puts women at risk from a range of negative health outcomes such as physical injury, mental health problems, sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV and AIDS, unwanted pregnancies, depression, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, emotional distress, fatigue, sleeping and eating disorders and general fear. There are a wide range of social factors thought to contribute the high occurrence of DV against women in the UK. These factors include some religious and political practices that undermine women (Walker, 1999). Factors such as financial hardship. a lack of resources, educational shortcomings, extreme alcohol consumption, high levels of jealousy, belonging to a large family and substance abuse have also all been linked with the rising risk of domestic violence (Martin et al., 1999). Furthermore, in comparison to their younger female counterparts, mature women may have a limited understanding of the term abuse as a result of their older generation (Zink et al., 2003). For example, DV may have not been considered as a criminal offence when they were growing up and feminist movements were generally unheard of. Despite figures showing that DV against mature women is rising considerably the UK, the government is considering serious funding cuts for crime prevention programs as well as staff cutting plans including over 50, 000 job cuts in the ‘National Health Service’ (NHS) over the next 10 year period (Scripps, 2013). In light of these cuts, this research aims to study the relationship between DV and the prevention programs that have been designed to tackle this crime. In particular, a counsellors’ perspective will be adopted and the challenged that counsellors face in the light of budget constraints will also be explored. Using an extensive review of the literature, the following sections provide a brief overview of the various aspects pertaining to DV and its psychological influence. The review will conclude with a discussion of government interventions and policy recommendations. This review will evaluate and critique the available literature pertaining to DV including an assessment of the historical evolution of DV as a general concern for mature women, theoretical explanations of DV and consideration of the significance of gender. This underpinning process will be used as a basis for examining the impact of DV against mature women (39 years old and above). It will also look at the value and effectiveness of current resources, initiatives, and support networks used to tackle DV and assist victims. This review will illustrate that DV in mature women is a complex and multifaceted subject. Definition of Terms For the purpose of this review, the following terms shall be defined as follows: Domestic violence: The term domestic violence is defined as a physical type of abuse carried out by an individual directly towards their significant other previously or currently, through the use of violence. The intent of the abuse is to somewhat establish and maintain a sense of dominion and control over another person, and is depicted in a context of uneven authority or entitlement. This therefore increases the likelihood of inflicting harm to both the physical and emotional welfare of that individual. Well-being: According to Ryan and Deci (2001), the term ‘well-being’ refers to the full spectrum of people’s emotional experiences and to their quality of life. Mature women: Mature women would be defined as those persons aged 39 years and above. Health: This is a state of physical and mental well-being, and thus not necessarily means the absence of symptoms, illness and morbidity (WHO, 2004b). Quality of life: This is an ‘individuals’ understanding of his or her status in life, in relation to the culture and value system of society, viewed against their personal goals, standard, and expectations in life (The WHOQOL Group, 1995). Qualitative Study: Qualitative studies are exploratory and are particularly well suited to social research. Cresswell (1998) defines a qualitative study as â€Å"an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants conducted in a natural setting.† Typical data gathering tools employed in a qualitative research design include observation, interviews, video documentaries, and focus groups. Quantitative Study: Quantitative studies measure information in numbers using a set of pre-defined variables as the focus of the study. Using the definition given by Cresswell (1998), it â€Å"is an inquiry into a social or human problem, based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory holds true.† Data collection methods typically include questionnaires, standardized tests and codified forms. Scope and Objectives The main objective of this research was to increase awareness of DV against mature women and to improve the standard and efficacy of the care that is provided to the victims. The researcher’s experience in looking after this group of victims has been challenging and may have been much improved if their experiences and needs were better understood. This piece of research aimed to: Carry out a literature review of DV in mature women. Identify how the government and society in general support victims of domestic violence in recovery. Identify the counsellor’s role while caring for victims of DV. To provide an opportunity for mature women to speak of their experiences in order to highlight their experiences and to develop resources to support and inform mature women (Mears, 2002). To explore the prevalence of physical and verbal abuse among the study population (Mouton at el, 2004). This research will use a positivist approach, focusing on the dilemma a mature victim of DV often faces and the importance of the therapeutic relationship they hold with their counsellor. This approach focuses on gaining â€Å"positive† evidence from observable experience, rather than depending on intuition or assumptions on behalf of researchers. In particular, this approach believes that there are general patterns of cause-and-effect and that these can be used to predict natural phenomena such as DV. Research Methodology This dissertation will use review the literature and contain analysis of secondary data and the summarising of the literature’s findings on the topic of DV in mature women. Procedure This piece of research used a literature review to gather data on the topic of DV amongst mature women in the UK and beyond. The following key terms and words were used in various academic search engines including Web of Knowledge (http://wok.mimas.ac.uk/), Science Direct (www.sciencedirect.com) and PubMed (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed): Domestic violence AND mature women. Domestic abuse AND mature women. Domestic violence AND women. Due to a limit in the number of articles generated using these search terms, no exclusionary criteria were applied. Literature review This is a secondary review research project involving an extensive literature review on the topic of DV and its impact and effects on mature women. The material for this review was obtained from peer reviewed psychological and counselling journals, which were accessed through online journal databases such as PUBMED and CINAHL. Governmental reports such as those published by the Department of Health (2000), BACP (2000), World Health Organisation (WHO, 2004) and technical reports from scientific research groups and working papers from social welfare committees were also used within the research. This review adopted the â€Å"best evidence synthesis† method proposed by Franche et al. (2005). This method involves summarizing the literature and drawing up conclusions, based on the balance of evidence. Epidemiology and Economic Impact Domestic violence among mature women is a pressing national problem. As a recent report from the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2004) indicates, domestic violence against mature women has increased five-fold resulting in increased depression, physical ill health, psychological effects and other mental health disorders (Scripps, 2013). In addition to the huge impact DV has on women, there is also a large economic cost. The Centre for Mental Health (2010) has reported an annual loss to the tune of ?30.3 billion due to mental health problems suffered by abused women, with over two thirds of this amount accounting for lost productivity within the workplace. Mental ill health which may be the result of DV has been identified as the primary reason for ‘incapacity benefit payment’ and over 43% of the 2.6 million individuals presently on long-term ‘health-related benefits’ present with psychosocial behavioural disorder as their primary condition (Department of Work and Pensions, 2010). DV can also have a direct negative impact on witnesses. Hewitt (2002) claims that almost 90% of DV occurrences are witnessed either directly or indirectly by children. Furthermore, the British government have stated that women can be distressed by witnessing DV carried out against other women (Hewitt, 2002). The literature also reveals differences in the prevalence of DV between younger and older women. For example, mature women are two to three times more likely to report minor physical attacks such as been pushed grabbed roughly and shoving than men (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998). It has also been found that women are 7 to 14 times more likely than men to report serious physical attacks of DV that include having been strangled, threatened with weapons or use of weapons (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998). Barriers to Accessing Care The literature search highlighted a number of key differences between the experiences of younger and mature women when it comes to DV. For example, unlike younger women, older women may be even less aware of the services available to those experiencing DV. For example, Scott et al. (2004) reported that there is a widespread myth among service providers and women themselves that Women’s Aid and other DV services prioritise younger women and younger women with children. Friedman et al. (1992) have postulated that abused mature women volunteer to share their uncertainties and concern to their health practitioners the majority of the time. Those women that do not share their concerns may not do so because of pride or shame. The other reason that mature women do not disclose DV is a fear of being judged by society and this has been challenged during the research as well as shortage of theoretical clarity concerning this matter since the majority of affected women were embarrassed to put across what they are facing and this has made data collection challenging. Zink et al. (2003) investigated the reasons for staying in an abusive relationship in women aged over 55 years. It was found that reasons could be divided into three categories: cohort effects, which included reasons such as lacking education or job skills, period effects such as rejection from help services or difficulty accessing services, and aging effects, which related to the physical limitations that their age can cause. These results suggest that although mature women experience similar barriers to leaving abusive relationships such as a lack of faith in their ability to find employment and support themselves, there are also barriers unique to mature women such as worries regarding their physical strength. Therefore, health workers and counsellors must be privy to these differences in order to improve the level of care and support that mature victims of DV receive. Theoretical Concepts There are a number of different theories that make be used to explain how DV comes about and what motivates its perpetrators.. For example, the social exchange theory (Emerson, 1976) offers a foundation for law enforcement and the prosecution of offenders. Furthermore, this assists in helping to explain how children who observe abuse mostly grow up to be abusers themselves. In contrast, a feminist approach may provide support for interventions targeted at supporting perpetrators to improve their behaviour and helping to empower victims. However, looking at these theories they do not appear to provide an inclusive foundation and a comprehensive approach for dealing with the various underlying outcomes or scope of DV. The more integrated ecological framework theory (see for example, Heise, 1998) is the one that appears to provide the required basis for an inclusive approach. The ecological framework theory has been used to conceptualise DV as a multi-faceted and complex phenomenon tha t has its foundations in a multitude of different factors including those of a situational and socio-cultural foundation (Heise, 1998). Unlike other theories, this theory is not reductionist and acknowledges that DV can be the result of many different factors. Discussion This researcher sought to increase knowledge and understanding regarding DV against older women by allowing older women themselves to speak out about how they define domestic violence; their views about causes, reporting, interventions, and consequences for perpetrators; factors that deter or prevent help-seeking from the justice system and community agencies; and elements of outreach and intervention strategies they see as acceptable and/or desirable. Results and Conclusions: Two important constructs that emerged were Domestic Abuse (DA), which encompasses emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, and Barriers to Help-Seeking (BHS), which appears to be closely related to the experience of victimization. In addition, eleven sub-concepts emerged from the data. Seven of these, Isolation, Jealousy, Intimidation, Protecting Family, Self-Blame, Powerlessness, and Spirituality, appeared to be related to both the experience of DA and BHS. An additional four factors defined as Secrecy, Hopeless ness, Concern for Abuser, and Justice were identified. This review has highlighted that violence amongst mature women has reached endemic proportions in most parts of the world. It also finds that no ethnic, racial, or socio-economic group is resistant from DV. Nonetheless, the review emphasized considerable heterogeneity in methodologies, sampling periods, sample sizes and the population studied. In some studies, ethnicity, age, and socio-economic status were not reliably recorded, resulting in difficulties in comparisons and evaluations. However, it must be emphasised that the WHO multi-country study was a significant effort to amass globally similar statistics by the use of identical study approaches. There were a number of key methodological issues identified in the studies included in this literature review. A key weakness of surveys is that they may not measure the real figures of abused women, especially as some abused women will be unwilling to reveal and report DV against them. In view of problems associated with self-reports, it is likely that results are biased by both over-reporting and under-reporting (Koss, 1993). According to Krauss (2006) DV differs from nation to nation, and occasionally within the same culture. Therefore, there are cultural factors to take into account when comparing research. For example, in Asian cultures women are brought up with the belief that family needs are superior to individual members’ needs (Rydstrom, 2003). Though women from poor countries are possibly most pre-disposed to believe that men have a right to beat their wives, it has been found that women in developing and developed countries can also be inclined to beliefs which vindicate violence against them (Fagan and Browne 1994). Furthermore, there are cultural differences in the societal view of DV. For example, the review has shown that not every woman who suffers abuse identifies themselves as ‘battered’ women (Mahoney 1991). For example, Islamic nations do not view domestic violence a major issue, despite its increasing incidence and serious consequences. Extracts from religious tract s have been improperly used to validate violence against women, although abuse may also be the result because of culture as well as religion (Douki et al. 2003). Nonetheless, power issues and gender (Caetano et al. 2000), rather than race and ethnicity (Anderson 1997), are likely to be more significant in building and preserving male supremacy and the inequality of power between wives and husbands (Harris et al. 2005). Furthermore, various ethnic groupings are frequently distorted into one single class, for example Asians (Mobell et al. 1997). Due to this, statistics collected on violence amongst minority populations are regularly inadequate, thereby preventing meaningful generalizations. Waltermaurer (2005) argues that the choice of measuring and the practice used to establish the occurrence of domestic violence have important bearings on the occurrence rates being reported. The majority of television and film images, as well as the images in magazines, often display images of abused younger women who have children and this may give a false impression that domestic violence is not something that may occur later on in life. This literature review has found that in comparison to younger women, older women throughout their lives have been less aware of all services and treatments readily available for those going through DV. The previous Government legislated in the Crime and Security Act 2010 for the introduction of Domestic Violence Protection Notices (DVPN) and Domestic Violence Protection Orders (DVPOs). On the 30th of June 2012 the domestic violence protection notices and orders (DVPO) were introduced in West Mercia, Wiltshire and Greater Manchester through three p olice forces. The operations will continue for another year while the Home Office works hand in hand to assess the pilot and decide whether or not a permanent change in the law system is required.. The scheme gives victims who might or may have fled their homes the kind of support they may need. There was a gap in protection in DV before the scheme was founded in 2012. Previously, police were unable to charge perpetrators because of lack of evidence and also because the process of granting injunctions to the perpetrators took time. The (DVPO) scheme closes the gap between then and now and gives the police and the magistrate the power to protect a victim after the attack as soon as they possibly can and try to stop the perpetrator form getting in contact with the victim or returning home for up 28 days. Disclosure of being abused itself is insufficient to reduce the risk of adverse mental health outcomes for mature women who have been victims of DV unless the listener’s respon se to the disclosure was repeatedly supportive (Coker et al. 2002). Mature women report key characteristics of helpful encounters with health-care providers as non-judgemental, sympathetic and caring response (Gerbert et al. 1999). Public and private organizations have kept on enhancing their contributions in fighting DV. In the United Kingdom, The Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act (2004) furnishes superior power to police and the courts in dealing with cases of DV and in providing security to victims. Furthermore the British government has recently issued a national domestic violence action plan which sets fourth ambitious goals: – Reduction in the occurrence of domestic violence – Increase in the rate that domestic violence is reported – increase the rate of domestic violence offences that are brought to justice – Ensure victims of domestic violence are satisfactorily protected and supported nationwide – Reduce the number of domestic violence related homicides. The review has shown that despite all Government initiatives towards domestic violence, healthcare agencies are still under-represented (Hague et al., 1996). It was not until the year 2000 that the Department of Health (DoH) started to take steps to implement front-line interventions from health professionals by publishing two documents known as ‘Domestic Violence: A Resource Manual for Health Care Professionals’ and ‘Principles of Conduct for Health Professionals’ (Department of Health, 2000a, 2000b). The aim of these documents was to integrate best practices recommended by the various governing bodies of differing health professionals. This documentation aims to provide guidance for healthcare professionals in their practice and daily interactions with women experiencing DV. After the publication of these documents, DV was seen for the first time as a health care issue as opposed to a mainly social care problem. The police and the criminal justice system cannot address the issue of domestic violence alone. The cost of protection for those women who experience domestic violence is of such a scale that it should be considered a major public health issue (Department of Health, 2000a: 2). Validity and Reliability As most of the literature referred to in this research was phenomenological, there are some key methodological limitations. For example, phenenological research is often open to interpretation. In particular, the same words may have different meanings for different people (Beck, 1994). This may be of particular importance for the topic of DV as some women who are included as participants may report that they are abused but may not attach the same negative connotations that the researchers do. The most reliable estimates of the extent of domestic violence in England and Wales come from the Crime Survey of England and Wales (CSEW; formerly known as the British Crime Survey). The CSEW asks people about their experience as victims. Being a household survey, it picks up more crime than the official police figures, as not all crimes are reported to the police, let alone recorded by them. Two sets of figures are available from the CSEW: the first, collected from the survey’s inceptio n in 1981, come from the results of face-to-face interviews; the second, available from 2004/05, come from confidential self-completion modules, which respondents complete in private by responding to questions on a computer. The unwillingness of respondents to reveal experience of domestic violence to an interviewer means that the first measure significantly underestimates the extent of domestic violence. Conclusion The high occurrence ofDV experienced by mature women suggests that doctors and other healthcare professionals working in all areas of medicine must identify and explore the potential significance of DV when considering reasons why mature women present with ill health. The issue of DV against mature women should be integrated into medical training, therapist training and also into governmental policy. Heterogeneity within the methodology of the different studies discussed in this review has highlighted the significance of developing stronger definitions to improve coherence across findings during a literature search. Future research work must try to recognize cultural differences when working with families and women of ethnic minorities. Contrary to previous assumptions that mature women may consider DV as acceptable, results of a study found that mature women were able to identify abuse and actions seen as abusive, which demonstrates suggesting that care workers may be misinterpreting victims’ feelings. The study also demonstrates how the attitude of mature women has been altered over time, from something acceptable to something that must be dealt with. Society must stop viewing domestic violence against mature women as a problem which only affects women, as the issue is overall a public health issue. All forms of violence against mature women are abhorrent and support for those who have been abused in any form should be readily available. We need a clear and decisive answer for calls for help from the health sector, in collaboration with women’s organizations and other related public powers. As observed by Hamberger et al. (1992), future research is essential in order to help determine the reason behind some re-occurring factors that are prevalent in contributing toward cases of DV against mature women. A collective societal intervention is necessary to address the social determinants of DV. Counsellors, as frontline care providers, have an essential role to play in controlling the negative impacts of DV amongst mature women. Counsellors can be proactive in their approach and target vulnerable individuals and groups based on initial assessment or treatment programs. Counsellors and healthcare providers should effectively liaise with various governmental and non governmental agencies that participate in delivering individual treatment plans for mature victims of DV.By improving the coordination between these participating agencies and the women that need intervention, healthcare providers can promote greater access to and utilization of these services. Future Work The researcher discovered that there is not much data available on the topic of DV in mature women from previous researchers. In future the researcher will conduct research herself when qualified enough to conduct research using questionnaires and interviews to collect qualitative data. REFERENCES Anderson, K. L. (1997). Gender, status, and domestic violence: an integration of feminist and family violence approaches. 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Racism and Justice System

The authors expose the myth of American meritocracy by informing us of all the ways that we maybe never paid attention to, such as how many black leaders there are in the sports arena’s such as coaches. They also expose the racial realist to the point that everything is not race based. Racial hierarchies are shown in ways that show us that American meritocracy is a myth by where blacks live. If blacks live in white neighborhoods how some would feel uncomfortable, or would even move out of the neighborhood. If racism was a thing of the past then we would no longer need affirmative action. Racism still exists and will forever exist in the world because the history it has of getting here. The book talks about how law institutionalizes the American ideal of equality, and this may be true but there are always people that are in these positions that corrupt and contaminate the entire system. Things have changed from the past form how racial discrimination was. It’s just done now through actions more so now than verbalizing. You can’t really verbalize your hatred for another race such as Texaco’s executives because you run the risk of people not bringing their business to you and now you can end up in civil court. The Supreme courts have made it even harder for one to make a discrimination suit against a company or employer because the evidence has to be so strong that it leaves no room for doubt in anyone’s mind in fact that was the case. Blacks are constantly stereotyped because of another black person’s action. Many white people have the perception that black people are lazy because we as a people seek more government help such as housing, food programs and even the low end jobs that some blacks have. They say that education rules out discrimination and employers rationally hire and promote people on the basis of their education and job skills. This is true to a certain extent; they won’t give the entire truth. They will hire African American based on those credentials but they won’t let them into the top positions. This I have found to be true just as recent as a couple of years ago. Walgreens would hire black assistant managers but would not promote them as store managers and a civil suit was filed against Walgreens’. Even in these case blacks still haven’t won because they promote a couple of black store managers and put them under a microscope, putting them in positions to fail. And once they fail they can keep hiring white store managers because they now have a paper trail of at least giving blacks an opportunity†¦.. to fail but at least they gave them a chance. Racism still exist even in schools to this day, no matter how you look at it they are still segregated to a degree. We can all agree that for the most part public schools in major cities are failing, and to get your children a good education you send them out to the suburbs. For here in Milwaukee they let a couple of black kids in their school system just to show that it’s not segregated but their tolerance for them is pretty low, knowing they can kick them out because 9 times out of ten they don’t stay in that school district. I am thankful that Brown’s case brought about desegregation in schools but there are loopholes in everything that people find. The plan that was implemented was whites move out of the major city and then their children have a chance for a better education with a lot less blacks there to intimidate or get their children involved with the wrong situation because so many whites think very lowly of blacks. I believe no matter what we as a nation or even the world will ever escape the ramifications of racism because like the book says how can we expect something of this nature to disappear in over thirty years that took over three hundred to create. My personal opinion is that we can make strides at it but we will never fully abolish racism. After all collectively as blacks we are taken for granted just as the fish takes the water they live in.

Critical review from an Business Strategy Article Essay

Critical review from an Business Strategy Article - Essay Example Therefore, the concept of core competencies as an application strategy for businesses, require advanced focus and learning the trends and change within an industry, and then identifying one or a few areas of the changing trends that are likely to merge, then working towards producing a product that serves that exact merging point of need (Prahalad & Hamel, 80). Informed by the principle of competitiveness, the strategy of core competencies works on the basis of building a portfolio of competencies, at the expense of a portfolio of businesses, meaning that attaining competiveness for a business organization is no longer about building a chain of related business within an industry, through diversification, but analyzing the specific areas a business can have a competitive advantage, and then capitalizing on that area to build on the competitiveness (Prahalad & Hamel, 81). Nevertheless, while applying the strategy of core competencies, it is paramount that focusing on new areas of busi ness where others have not yet perceived opportunities should not relent, so that an organization can build a stable competitive platform, which makes it difficult for others in the same industry to compete. The main strengths of the article is that it demonstrates the major arguments through the application of real organizational examples, detailing the process of such organizational businesses, and showing how the core competencies strategy made an overall difference. This way, it becomes easy to understand the strategy advocated, since real life examples are applied. A better demonstration is when the information technology industry was evolving in the early 1980s, where GTE was the company poised to take the advantage of the opportunity... Informed by the principle of competitiveness, the strategy of core competencies works on the basis of building a portfolio of competencies, at the expense of a portfolio of businesses, meaning that attaining competiveness for a business organization is no longer about building a chain of related business within an industry, through diversification, but analyzing the specific areas a business can have a competitive advantage, and then capitalizing on that area to build on the competitiveness (Prahalad & Hamel, 81). Nevertheless, while applying the strategy of core competencies, it is paramount that focusing on new areas of business where others have not yet perceived opportunities should not relent, so that an organization can build a stable competitive platform, which makes it difficult for others in the same industry to compete. The main strengths of the article is that it demonstrates the major arguments through the application of real organizational examples, detailing the process of such organizational businesses, and showing how the core competencies strategy made an overall difference. This way, it becomes easy to understand the strategy advocated, since real life examples are applied. A better demonstration is when the information technology industry was evolving in the early 1980s, where GTE was the company poised to take the advantage of the opportunity and see significant growth in its size, sales and revenues, considering that it was already well established in the industry, as opposed to NEC, which was a relatively small company in the industry

Rhetorical analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Rhetorical analysis - Essay Example The author begins the article by introducing the opinion of some researchers and scientists regarding the role of physical activity in addressing obesity, which is a growing public health problem. It is explained here that exercise does help prevent obesity marginally and that the main issue that should be focused on is ‘unhealthy eating’. The author uses expert opinion, citing the British Journal of Sports Medicine, to give credibility to the argument. Counterpoints are used to show the difference between physical activity and unhealthy eating in terms of preventing obesity. The author appeals to the logic of the reader by demonstrating that physical activity is useless in preventing obesity if one continues with an unhealthy diet; for instance, he mentions that â€Å"while activity was a key part of staving off diseases such as diabetes, heart disease and dementia, its impact on obesity was minimal† (Triggle para 3), further stating that â€Å"excess sugar and carbohydrates were key† (Triggle para 4). Such appeal to logic is successful once backed up by expert knowledge. The second part of the article talks about how experts hold the food industry, as well as commercial ads, responsible for the growing misconception about the effectiveness of exercise in preventing obesity. The author appeals to the emotion of his readers by showing how the commercial and food industry has let the people down through misleading information and images. He uses imagery, through citing some common images like ‘Big Tobacco’, ‘junk food’, and ‘sugary drinks’, in order to make the appeal stronger. The statement of Dr. Aseem Malhotra, a cardiologist from London, is somewhat expressive: â€Å"An obese person does not need to do one iota of exercise to lose weight; they just need to eat less† (Triggle para 6). This statement makes one think how greatly people are deceived into thinking that physical activity alone can curb obesity. The call for misleading ads also

Literature Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Literature Review - Essay Example Every year, companies incur a lot of undue cost just because of the slackness of employees despite the thoughtfully constructed performance appraisal systems in place. This paper explores reasons why performance appraisal systems may not be the best way to judge an employee’s abilities by conducting a thorough analysis of the workers’ needs and the various factors that influence their competence in the workplace. A lot of studies have conventionally been done to identify the factors affecting workers’ performance. However, this review will be limited to the discussion about the validity of performance appraisal systems. A lot of factors influence a worker’s performance that include but are not limited to job satisfaction, job security, allowances offered at the job, time of work, duration of work, relationship with peers, organizational structure, organizational culture, social interaction, accommodation, association with family and distance from the famil y. These and many other factors like them have a great impact on the motivation of a worker. The performance of a worker is fundamentally governed by his/her competence. Therefore, in order to study the impact of appraisal on the performance of an individual, it is customary to study the factors that influence the individual’s competence. According to Stern and Kemp (2004), competency is the product of an individual’s skill, motivation and personality traits. Various theories have been proposed at different points in time to identify the factors that play a decisive role in motivating an individual in the workplace. One of such theories that is discussed most frequently is the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory. The Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, as the name implies, consists of a set of needs that are staged in order of priority. The following diagram depicts all stages that accommodate the hierarchical order of needs identified by Maslow: Maslowâ⠂¬â„¢s Hierarchy of Needs (Chapman, 2010). There are basically five stages of needs. The biological and physiological needs which include such things as air, water and food form the most basic needs. Life is not possible without the fulfillment of these needs. Next come the safety needs. All humans need safety and protection. Unless their safety is ensured, workers can not put in their best effort because of the resulting psychological upsets. In the present age, job security has become a big problem all over the world. Because of the economic recession, employees are being fired in large numbers and the companies are being down sized. This is a potential threat to the safety of workers, so performance appraisals can not be considered valid system for the assessment of the workers’ capabilities with such job insecurity. After getting secure, a worker wants his love and belongingness needs fulfilled. Quite often, people have to live away from their home because of work, and he nce, do not get a chance to meet the family quite often. Many employees try to fulfill their love and belongingness needs by interacting with the colleagues. However, not many are successful because all employees share common interests in the context of an organization, and hence, many develop grudges particularly as one of the employees gains more status and reward as

Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Education - Essay Example cer by another name does not cure cancer, there is a need to confront the eligibility problem by strengthening the supportive attitude on children with disabilities, while introducing honest-to-goodness approaches to the admission problem on special children (Howard, 2012). The Lavender Scare came along Senator McCarthy’s Red Scare which prejudged homosexuals in Federal Government to be morally depraved and likely to sell classified information to Communists. State policies and laws caused homosexuals to lose their government jobs, while repressing the gay and lesbian subculture which once flourished during the Roosevelt administration. The Lavender Scare backfired and served as the roots of the gay rights movement. Court cases gave victories to homosexuals until discrimination was finally outlawed under the Civil Service Law (Johnson, n.d.). The Obama administration set the policy allowing homosexuals in the military establishment to openly reveal their sexual orientation without losing their employment. In some states today, gays enjoy same-sex marriage rights, while women have gained the right to priestly ordination in some Churches. Sex and gender biases have started to fade away. On teacher interaction with boys and girls, researches show that boys may need more attention from educators as two-thirds of them are labeled as learning disabled, alcoholic, drug violators and juveniles. On the other hand, women rights advocates claim girls need more attention from teachers, while eliminating negative attention being given to them (Gilah, 1987). Researches continue to establish patterns for teacher interactions with boys and/or girls. Already, male teachers coach girls’ sports teams, but a TV series like Glee portrayed the bias against women teachers coaching boys’ teams. Professional attitudes among educators may yet solve the problem of bias in teacher-student gender

General Factor of Creativity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

General Factor of Creativity - Assignment Example Biofeedback, or self-consciousness learning from and simultaneously influencing the environment, is an important structural model for my decision making and the day to day activities of awareness. I find I have to accept mistakes as a given in any undertaking but repeatedly refine and re-focus the will to attain goals that are based in the ideals and beliefs of the highest good and intended to benefit the evolution of human consciousness. (diCarlo, 2010) Activity is only one dimension of the self in my philosophy of creativity, but it is through the creative process that what is lasting and memorable will be achieved in life. Nevertheless, I feel activity should be based on an altruistic motivation to help and assist others in all manners of living, valuing what is shared in a manner equal if not more precious than what is packaged and sold. The balancing of competing interests and maintaining a consistent philosophy, free of hypocrisy, with its own interpretation and application is the key to establishing an identity in works of art or literature born out of the creative process. ... velopment, I believe the personality must come into tune or harmony with the creative spirit and become effortless self-expression in order to be successful. Personality cannot be considered determinant of creativity, for the creative spirit takes force across all personality types. An excellent review of scientific literature on the subject is available in Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic’s Personality and Individual Differences (2007). I find too much in technique in art is equivalent to other forms of overbearing social life and communication, and from this the importance of balance in mind and awareness is made evident. Nevertheless, across all of the moods in my personality, I believe there may be also shared patterns of behavior or thinking that can facilitate creativity by sparking new ideas, critical approaches, or methodologies. Artists and musicians, as well as scientists, generally learn synergetically through combining multiple influences and traditions into a new and uniqu e form at the highest levels of creativity. In this regard, I believe creativity can become related very closely to spirituality in personal self-expression. According to Jungian psychology, as the mind and awareness becomes conscious of more universal themes, the self-expression of the personality on all levels can be expected to change in accordance with this. (Rothgeb, 1992) In this manner, creativity and personality are essentially the same force of self-expression to me, acting across multimedia and other forms of communication or relationship. The open, balanced and conscience-aware personality that is based in altruistic generosity seems the best ideal to for me to strive for in personal relationships, but the subject matter of the subconscious and conscious struggles based on ideals and

Health Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health Organization - Essay Example The healthy centre has been in existence since 1965 despite the numerous challenges that it faces. Saint Anthony centre for diabetes handles various cases that are related to nutrition, obesity, and metabolism. In addition, the hospital handles chronic conditions that affect diabetes patients. This paper will therefore analyse the marketing strategies of Saint Anthony’s hospital. The marketing mix (4 Ps) is one of the most common tools used to explain marketing phenomenon. The 4 Ps of marketing are products, place, price and promotion. The main product that the centre offers is treatment of diabetes and related complications. This is done through medication, or putting the patients (clients) on diet programs. The hospital also offers counselling services to patients with chronic conditions or those who are suffering from depression because of their ailments. Other products that the hospital offers are testing kits that are used by patients to test the level of sugars in their blood. Unlike other health organizations, saint Anthony diabetes centre offer comprehensive services to its customers. The hospital not only treats the medical condition by giving its patients control and regulation medications, but it offers counselling service to its patient. This is a critical aspect, since diabetes is a chronic disease that leaves its patients exposed to psychological depressions. The hospital has also enabled its patient to be able to monitor their health condition using the blood-sugar level test kits. This enables patients to monitor their health condition constantly without going to the health centre. Finally, the hospital offers its services in both English and Spanish. This has enabled the hospital to serve a wide range of customers. Saint Anthony serves its patient through its main centre in Chicago and other affiliated centres and clinics that are found in other major cities. In addition, the hospital has outreach programs that targets corporate and scho ols. Through the outreach programs, the hospital offers education on healthy nutrition and the significance of physical exercise. Price is a critical factor that affects the sustainability of business. The price of the products also determines the class of customers that a business attracts. The centre has compressive price strategies that cater for all its customers. The government and other organizations that are concerned with diabetes subsidize treatment for diabetic patients. Promotion involves informing the customers about the products offered by the business. The hospital markets its products through the media and field practice. Outreach programs in schools and corporate are some of the strategies that the hospital use to market its products. The centre mainly promote its services and products through partnership with schools and corporate. Relationship with these marketing partners is based on the special requirement of each of the marketing centres. For instance, a corpora te has requirements and expectations that are different from those of schools. In addition, the marketing collaborates benefits from the partnerships and the services offered by the centre. Affiliate schools use the partnership as a platform to promote healthy behaviours among their students. For instance, drug abuse and poor eating habits promote chronic conditions such as depression and cancer. These factors are also known to promote diabetes. Thus, schools consider this partnership as an opportunity to educate their students on healthy lifestyles. Similarly, the partnership benefits both the hospital and the corporate. Most professionals are faced with the challenge of balancing their professional life and social life leading to health complications. Corporate have the responsibility of ensuring that

E-Business Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

E-Business Strategy - Essay Example Kourdi defines business strategy as â€Å"the plans, choices and decisions used to guide a company to greater profitability and success† (3). In e-business terms, we can mould this definition to state that e-business strategy is the plans, choices and decisions that are used by the business owners to guide their electronic transactions with other businesses, customers, suppliers, executives, partners and investors to achieve high end productivity in the virtual world. If the e-business owners are able to implement clearly focused strategy, they are then able to provide commercial success to their virtual businesses. On the other hand, if the strategy is faulty, this leads to total destruction of the company in the short or long run. Therefore, it is important to understand the importance of e-business strategy which is quite different from the real world business strategy. It is also important to differentiate between the strategic plans and otherwise decisions because many bu sinessmen have the â€Å"tendency to label every plan and decision strategic when most are about implementing strategy rather than setting it†, according to Kourdi (3). Successful E-Business Strategy- An Example How and why e-business strategies are successful is understood when the results and outcomes are observed. Dave mentions in his book that when the e-business owner knows in which direction he will drive his company and what kind of organizational culture he is going to impart to his e-business so as to enhance the productivity and attract e-consumers efficiently, this enables them to lay down such a strategic plan that helps them achieve their mission. E-business strategies are successful because they tend to clarify the mission statement and the vision of the e-company thus resulting in goal-based and productive performance of the company in the cyberspace. Dave mentions in his book many examples of successful e-businesses out of which a very interesting one is that of the Dow Chemical (p.249). According to Dave, Dow chemical is the result of implementation of a successful e-business strategy

The Due Process and Offender Supervision Models Essay Example for Free

The Due Process and Offender Supervision Models Essay The criminal justice system has been described on various models for dealing with offenders. According to Herbert Packer’s â€Å"Two Models of the Criminal Process† in 1964, he described the criminal justice process in the US as a result of the struggle between the two models or value systems. These two are the crime control model and the due process model. These two differs in their approach in dealing with offenders. The crime control model was described like that of the â€Å"assembly-line conveyor belt† since it aims to resolve the case and bring punishment to the offender as efficiently as possible. This model operates on the idea or â€Å"the presumption of guilt† that suggests that if the offender has been charged and arrested then they are really guilty of the crime and deserves punishments. The due process model also aims to convict the guilty but at the same time protect their rights and prevent innocent people from injustices, police abuses and inequality. This method might work in favor of the offender but not with the victims of crimes. It tends to slow down the process and may hinder the truth. This model has been described as the â€Å"obstacle course† for an efficient justice system. A new model also came out which seek to improve the current criminal justice system. These two new models include the punitive and non-punitive model. Punitive model is said to combine the crime control and due process model. This model asserts the retaliatory importance of punishment for the offender together with the need of the victims and the accused. The non-punitive model on the other hand have given emphasis on the attempt to minimize the pain of both victimization and punishment by promoting crime prevention and restorative justice this according to Kent Roach’s Four Models Of The Criminal Process. The criminal justice models have continued to improve its system as the crime offenders haven’t decrease from the years that passed. The rights of the victims and the offender have been both considered. The models serves as guide for law enforcers to minimize victimization at the same time provide efficient justice system. Community Corrections models The community corrections take many forms and types and each was tried and tested to identify which among is the best method to help rehabilitate crime offenders. What is the role of community corrections? This community correction pertains to pretrial diversion and intermediate sanctions given to felons or misdemeanants. It also refers to non incarcerative, yet supervised way of dealing with offenders. Community corrections takes the form of probation and parole, day reporting centers, house arrest, electronic monitoring, half way houses and many others. Among these probation and parole are the commonly utilized forms of community corrections. Community corrections operate on basic principles and philosophies. One of these is reintegration or residential stability which pertains to the need of the offender to be place in a home or community environment. The provision of professional services like medical or psychological assistance is also important. The offenders need to undergo rehabilitation. There must also be accountability between the offender and the supervisor to monitor and evaluate the progress. There is also economic efficiency which emphasizes the need of the offenders to find and hold a job to help them return in the society. These activities are based on the philosophy of restorative justice, the idea that offenders need to have a complete life change to be able to rejoin in the community once again. Community corrections has helped to lessen the overcrowding of jails, keep the cost of criminal justice down and provide as a final stage of the criminal justice process as mentioned in the Megalinks In Criminal Justice. In offender supervision there are also models or approaches being followed or adapted to be able for the officers to handle the offenders under their supervision and guidance especially in probation and parole. The Casework Supervision Model of 1900 to 1970 is a model concern with diagnosis and treatment. It is where that the officers saw themselves as â€Å"caseworkers†. The Brokerage Supervision Model of 1970 to 1980 identified that the officers are not adequately skilled to deliver specialized services. A Community Resource Management Team therefore is needed to provide services for employment training, drug and alcohol abuse treatment, family counseling and many other kinds of services. The next one is the Justice Model of Supervision of 1980-1995. It concerns with risk management and control, it also emphasized surveillance to effect compliance with court orders. Another model is the Broken Windows Model which gives emphasis on partnership with police and treatment providers, transparency and program evaluation of effectiveness according to Wes Krause’s Community Corrections. The Models and their Effectiveness in Dealing with Offenders Both the criminal justice system and community correction system have various models or approaches to consider. These models have been adjusted and modified to meet the changing needs of times and to improve its system. The crime control model and due process model are considered not enough to give justice to victims adequately that is why the punitive and non-punitive models are being adapted in the criminal justice system. The latest models of punitive and non-punitive models seek to remedy the problems that arise from previous models of criminal justice system. In punitive model for example the justice system combines the crime model and due process model to adequately meet the needs of both the offender and the crime victims. In the non punitive models some agree that punishment is not the solution in solving crime but can be solve through the use of crime prevention and restorative justice and other alternatives to incarceration. In the field of offender supervision, the Casework Model is traditionally and extensively used it is where that the officer becomes the primary agent of treatment and moral recovery. Later models seem to revitalize the existing approach making it more visible in the public and increase the success rate for probationers and parolees. The Promise of the Current Practices The current trends in the criminal justice system will definitely affect the future system. The future of law enforcement depends on which model will dominate the system in the future. If the Crime Control Model will dominate it is expected that the police will have fewer limitations to combat crime while if the Due Process Model dominates it is expected that pretrial detention will not be use to often and people are entitled to remain free until they are proven guilty. Also the Restorative Justice will be another alternative for the punitive justice currently used in the US. Reintegrative Shaming a form of restorative justice can also be adapted on the future law enforcement. Technology will greatly affect the current and future trends of criminal justice system. There will be increase in the use of interactive televisions, DNA profiling and DNA database. Electronic surveillance will create greater chance for monitoring of the offenders. In terms of community corrections, it faced issue on whether to devote more on punishment or rehabilitation. Intermediate sanction programs face a lot of problems like lack of funding and the inability to be as intensive as possible. The caseloads of officers continue to increase in number while the government continues to look for alternatives to incarceration. The community corrections had identified which method worked and doesn’t work out effectively in dealing with offenders. Work Cited Krause, Wes. â€Å"Chapter 6 the History of Supervision Philosophy and Practice†. Community Corrections. 19 November 2008. http://criminaljustice. csusb. edu/Krause/CJ431/CJ431Chapter6. pdf O’ Connor, T. â€Å"Community Corrections†. 2 July 2006. Megalinks in Criminal Justice. 19 November 2008. http://www. apsu. edu/ Roach, Kent. â€Å"Four Models of the Criminal Process†. 1999. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology: Northwestern University School of Law. 21 November 2008 http://findarticels. com â€Å"Chapter 14 Understanding and Predicting the Future of Criminal Justice†. 19 November 2008 http://www. unt. edu/cjus/Course_Pages/CJUS_2100/2100chapter14. ppt.

The Issue Of Bilingualism With Psycholinguists

The Issue Of Bilingualism With Psycholinguists Bilingualism is a controversial issue that psycholinguists vary in the way they define it due to its multidimensional aspects. It should be carefully viewed with great consideration to certain variables appearing in the coming definitions. Auer (1995), states that bilingualism can be referred to the linguistic competences in more than one language. This bilingual competence can be accessible via the analysis of well-formed sentences involving two languages which may be treated as a window on the bilingual mind (Auer, 1995, p.115). Clearly, psycholinguists deem bilingualism as hidden competence in bilinguals minds, and it can be revealed as bilinguals produce utterances. Conversely, Saunders (1988) declares that bilingualism has different associations in peoples minds. Some people assume that bilingualism is native-like control of two languages which is later on called true bilingualism (p,7). However, bilinguals who have no native speakers competence in both languages reject this def inition utterly. Some linguists stress that this definition is restrictively limited to bilingual individuals who master their two languages completely. Dual monolingual is also a term used to refer to bilinguals mastering two languages as if they were native speaker monolinguals in both languages. However, Saunder (1988) argues that many bilinguals comprehend a foreign language without being able to speak it fluently. Therefore, linguists define bilingualism as the ability to speak two languages at any level of competency. After all these various arguments regarding bilingualisms nature, it is clear that bilingual individuals have different degrees of competence in the second language. Saunder (1988). Colin Baker Sylvia Prys Jones (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd. (in the library). *Definition of bilingualism: According to Baker Jones (1998), when asked about bilingualism, most people believe that they know the answers of the following questions, what is bilingualism? How can a bilingual be defined? They would say that a bilingual person is the one who speaks two languages. However, defining bilingualism and bilinguals is more difficult than what the people think. Bilingualism involves a number of dimensions. There are five main issues that show the difficulty to define bilingualism very concisely. Also, they show that there might be degrees of bilingualism which vary in the same person over time. There is distinction between ability in language and use of language. They are two separate things. For example, a bilingual person has the ability to speak two languages very fluently, but he or she uses and practices only one of the two languages regardless whether it is the native language or the second language. Another bilingual person has the ability to speak two languages but he or she has some problems in speaking one of the two languages regardless whether it is the native language or the second language, but this person uses and practices both languages regularly. This distinction can be referred to the degree of difference between proficiency or competence of language (ability) and function of that language (use). Proficiency may vary in a language. For example, the abilities of a bilingual person will vary in using a language among the four skills of that language (speaking, listening, reading, and writing), where that person might be very good in speaking A language but when it comes to writing, the person will use B language to write or read, because his or her ability of writing in A language is weak or low. Another bilingual person might have good abilities (proficiency) in speaking and writing of a language, but he or she cannot use and practice (speak or write) that language, so he or she tends to use another language. This is called receptive competence. Few bilingual people are equally proficient in both languages, but one language tends to be stronger and better developed than the other language. It is called the dominant language and it is not necessarily to be the first or native language. Few bilinguals possess the same competence as monolinguals in either of their languages. This is because bilinguals use their languages for different functions and purposes. A bilinguals competence in a language may vary over time and according to changing circumstances. For example, a child starts to learn a minor language at home or in the childhood. As time goes, he or she learns another language in the school or community and he or she will gradually will lose the minor language, because it is out of use and that person became away from the childhood; the situation where the minor language is used. Leonard Bloomfield (1933). Language. UK: GEORGE ALLEN UNWIN LTD. In the extreme case of foreign language learning, the speaker becomes so proficient as to be indistinguishable from the native speakers round him. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦In this case where this perfect foreign language learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in bilingualism, (the) native-like control of two languages. (P. 55-56). Romaine, S (1995). Bilingualism (2nd ed.). UK: Blackwell Publishers. Proficiency and function are the factors which are related to the terms of categories, scales and dichotomies in defining and describing bilingualism. In one side of the issue of the definition of bilingualism, there would be a definition like Bloomfields definition (1933 p, 55-56) In the extreme case of foreign language learning, the speaker becomes so proficient as to be indistinguishable from the native speakers round him. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦In this case where this perfect foreign language learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in bilingualism, (the) native-like control of two languages. This definition identifies native like control of two languages as being the norm for bilingualism. In the other side, Haugen (1953 p, 7) shows that when a person of any language can produce complete meaningful sentences in another language, he or she would be a bilingual. According to Mackey (1967 p, 555), there are four aspects should be taken into account when defining and describing bilingualism. They are overlapped to each other and cannot be treated separately. These aspects are degree, function, alteration, and interference. The degree of bilingualism indicates the proficiency and competence of language, which is the extent to which the bilingual knows each of the languages. The part of function focuses on the use and practice a bilingual has for the languages. How much each language is used and practiced by the bilingual? Alteration concentrates on the extent to which the bilingual switches between the languages (code switching). And interference is the degree to which a bilingual manages to keep the two languages separate or fused. The four questions are overlapped to each other and they cannot be treated separately. For example, a bilinguals knowledge of a language will to some extent specify the functions to which it is put; and the vice ver sa. The contexts in which bilinguals have the opportunity to use language will affect their competence in it. Josiane, F. Hamers Michel H. Blanc. (2000). Bilinguality and Bilingualism (2nd edition). UK: Cambridge University Press. Hamers Blanc (2000) mention a number of definitions of bilingualism, but they are not satisfied with any one of them because they are one sided as they assume. Moreover, they highlight unidimensionality as being one weakness of bilingualism because when defining it, only one dimension would be taken account, ignoring other sides of bilingualism. For example, a definition of bilingualism may concerns competence, without the other significant dimensions. ( p, 3 23). Hoffmann (1991) mentions the same previous point in the way that the most remarkable and significant feature of bilingualism is the multi-faceted phenomenon of it which is expected to be the point of difficulty when defining bilingualism from one dimension. At first sight, the concept of bilingualism seems to be non-problematical and easy to be defined. However, when moving deep down on the many variant definitions of bilingualism, one can recognise how difficult it is to define a bilingual. According to Websters dictionary (1961), bilingual is defined as having or using two languages especially as spoken with the fluency characteristic of a native speaker; a person using two languages especially habitually and with control like that of a native speaker and bilingualism as the constant oral use of two languages. Many people view bilingualism as the ability of speaking two languages perfectly; like native speakers. This approach comes in one side of bilingualism and it is related to Leonard Bloomfield (1953: 56) who defines bilingualism as the native like control of two languages which concentrates on the dimension of proficiency in language. In contrast, on the other most different side there is a definition of Macnamara (1967a) who defines a bilingual as an individual who acquire a minimal competence in only one of the four skills in a language other than the mother tongue. Between these most two distinctive definitions, there is a collection of other definitions of bilingualism, for example, Titone (1972) defines bilingualism as the individuals capacity to speak a second language while following the concepts and structures of that language rather than paraphrasing his or her mother tongue. The previous three distinctive definitions show the degree of difficulty in providing a concise definition of a bilingual and bilingualism, because those three definitions themselves lack specifity and clarity in the main points on them like native-like competence, minimal proficiency in a second language, and following the concept of structures of the second language. (p, 6-7). Hoffmann, C. (1991). An Introduction to Bilingualism. UK: Longman. An oft-quoted definition is found in one of the early books on modern linguistics, Leonard Bloomfields Language, first published in the USA in 1933. Bloomfield pays special attention to users who become so proficient in the new language that they cannot be distinguished from the native speakers and he considers these users are bilinguals. He relates bilingualism to those individuals who speak a second language with high native level of proficiency. According to Hoffmann (1991), Bloomfield has a clear notion of bilingualism, but there is some contradiction on his definition of bilingualism. For example, if a degree of perfection cannot be defined in bilingualism, so how could Bloomfield talk of perfect foreign language learning? Bloomfield To be removed Opposite of Bloomfield General To begin with

The Monoamine Hypothesis, Placebos and Problems of Theory Construction in Psychology, Medicine, and Psychiatry :: Psychological Medical Psychiatric Essays

The Monoamine Hypothesis, Placebos and Problems of Theory Construction in Psychology, Medicine, and Psychiatry ABSTRACT: Can there be scientific theories in psychology, medicine or psychiatry? I approach this question through an in-depth analysis of a typical experiment for clinical depression involving the monoamine hypothesis, drug action, and placebos. I begin my discussion with a reconstruction of Adolph Grà ¼nbaum's conceptual analysis of 'placebo,' and then use his notion of "intentional placebo" to discuss a typical experiment using the monoamine hypothesis, two drugs and a placebo. I focus on the theoretical aspects of the experiment, especially on the notion of causal explanation. I then raise five conceptual and methodological problems for theory construction. These problems focus on questions of the causal efficacy of placebos and drugs; ad hoc versus ceteris paribus explanations in biomedicine and psychology; and the falsifiability of the monoamine hypothesis. I conclude by pointing out the need for further, rigorous philosophical analysis concerning the possibility of theory con struction in psychology, medicine, or psychiatry. I. Introduction Can there ever be scientific theories in psychology, medicine, or psychiatry? I argue that one approach to answering this question consists of investigating the nature of such purported theories and I focus on the monoamine hypothesis of clinical depression. (1) By a careful examination of a typical experiment involving the action of drugs and placebos for the cure of clinical depression-an experiment founded upon the monoamine hypothesis-I raise a number of methodological and conceptual problems that may lead one to conclude that rigorous scientific theories in these three disciplines may never be forthcoming, or at least that the state of scientific research in these areas is still in very rudimentary shape and in need of much logical and philosophical analysis. In addition, because no such biomedical theories may be forthcoming, I also undercut Adolf Grà ¼nbaum's analysis of the concept of a placebo, an analysis that makes the definition of "placebo" relative to a biomedical theo ry in the first place. I begin in section 2 by discussing Grà ¼nbaum's detailed analysis of what a placebo is. I then use his idea of a generic intentional Placebo and discuss one of many similar experiments concerning the phenomenon of clinical depression, experiments that use the monoamine hypothesis and the notion of a generic intentional placebo. This experiment is described in section 3. In section 4 I analyze the results of this study and in section 5 I offer concluding remarks.

Explore the ways in which two or three of these poems present the :: English Literature

Explore the ways in which two or three of these poems present the experience of living between two cultures and the difficulties it causes. The two poems I am choosing are "Presents from my Aunts in Pakistan" and "Search for My Tongue". "Presents from my Aunts in Pakistan" is written by Moniza Alvi, a woman who was born in Pakistan but moved to England at an early age. Her mother was from England and white, her Father was Pakistani and so black. This makes Moniza 'half-caste', as well as the aunts in poem being from her father's side. Her poem begins with a description of the gifts her aunts send her; "They sent me a salwar kameez peacock-blue, and another glistening like an orange split openà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦" The gifts are clothes in the typical Pakistani style, long tunic and loose trousers of blue and orange. Yet her indisposition towards the clothes is hinted at by her description of the first set of clothes. Peacock blue suggests that she feels like a peacock in them, showing off and flamboyant, something she doesn't want to be. They make her uncomfortable and self conscious. The next set of clothes show us the passage of time for Alvi with more clothes from her aunts. Yet as in England, and as she puts it, school, fashions change. The salwar bottoms are now broad and stiff then narrow towards the bottom. She tries on the clothes in sitting room, unwrapping them with her parents. She tries each one on and feels alien, as she puts is, to them. She doesn't' full reject them, but they are too exotic for her, too lovely for her. She acknowledges that they are pretty and acceptable clothes, but she cannot feel at ease in them. She longs for 'normal' clothes; "I longed for and corduroy." The clothes to her are a costume, something for other times, not now, "My costume clung to me and I was aflame, I couldn't rise out of this fire, half English, unlike Aunt Jamila." The clothes she is wearing are no doubt brightly coloured, perhaps like the orange ones from before. They seem like flames to her, and to others she presumes. They are too exotic, too foreign, and they draw too much attention. She cannot rise out of their flames; she cannot be seen through them. When people look at her wearing those, they will see the clothes, not a person. The clothes identify her as Pakistani, not English. That would be alright if she was sure of her own background, but she is not. By wearing those clothes her balance of ethnicity is thrown wildly askew. Explore the ways in which two or three of these poems present the :: English Literature Explore the ways in which two or three of these poems present the experience of living between two cultures and the difficulties it causes. The two poems I am choosing are "Presents from my Aunts in Pakistan" and "Search for My Tongue". "Presents from my Aunts in Pakistan" is written by Moniza Alvi, a woman who was born in Pakistan but moved to England at an early age. Her mother was from England and white, her Father was Pakistani and so black. This makes Moniza 'half-caste', as well as the aunts in poem being from her father's side. Her poem begins with a description of the gifts her aunts send her; "They sent me a salwar kameez peacock-blue, and another glistening like an orange split openà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦" The gifts are clothes in the typical Pakistani style, long tunic and loose trousers of blue and orange. Yet her indisposition towards the clothes is hinted at by her description of the first set of clothes. Peacock blue suggests that she feels like a peacock in them, showing off and flamboyant, something she doesn't want to be. They make her uncomfortable and self conscious. The next set of clothes show us the passage of time for Alvi with more clothes from her aunts. Yet as in England, and as she puts it, school, fashions change. The salwar bottoms are now broad and stiff then narrow towards the bottom. She tries on the clothes in sitting room, unwrapping them with her parents. She tries each one on and feels alien, as she puts is, to them. She doesn't' full reject them, but they are too exotic for her, too lovely for her. She acknowledges that they are pretty and acceptable clothes, but she cannot feel at ease in them. She longs for 'normal' clothes; "I longed for and corduroy." The clothes to her are a costume, something for other times, not now, "My costume clung to me and I was aflame, I couldn't rise out of this fire, half English, unlike Aunt Jamila." The clothes she is wearing are no doubt brightly coloured, perhaps like the orange ones from before. They seem like flames to her, and to others she presumes. They are too exotic, too foreign, and they draw too much attention. She cannot rise out of their flames; she cannot be seen through them. When people look at her wearing those, they will see the clothes, not a person. The clothes identify her as Pakistani, not English. That would be alright if she was sure of her own background, but she is not. By wearing those clothes her balance of ethnicity is thrown wildly askew.

Standards Based Education: The Base for Improving Schools

Since nearly twenty years, education in the United States has been strongly impacted by â€Å"standards movement†. Linked proximally to evaluation and answerability, standard-based reforms, not like most other educational systems like open education, behavioral goals, and least ability, has gained ground in an extremely severe and all-encompassing manner. Right from parents to policy-makers, there is an ardent countrywide support to use standards as the base for improving schools. (The Virginia Standards of Learning) As per Collins Cobuild dictionary, â€Å"a standard is a stage of quality or achievement, particularly a stage which is considered to be good enough. It is something used to calculate or approximate the quality or degree of something, for instance, the degree of superiority of a piece of work. † In the sphere of education, a standard is a word that describes a growing body of knowledge and set of expertise which is the foundation for quality education. They put across what every student must know and be capable to perform, however do not state pedagogy. Why have a standards-based curriculum and what are the implications for the teaching-learning-assessment process? ) The quintessence of a â€Å"standard† is to depict a level of knowledge or performance that is necessary for some reason. For instance, there is a standard fixed by the telephone companies relating to the manner operators communicate with the customers, by the State Government to deliver driving licenses, a intensity of accuracy is necessary for building autos, and a set of unambiguous strategy for assessing gymnastics, diving, and ice skating. In an identical manner, teachers employ objectives of the students to find out what will be imparted, and as a criterion for making grades for student†s work. Each of these â€Å"standards† has two parts: an account of what will be recognized or performed, and a suggestion of quality of its performance. In education, these two magnitudes have been pointed as content standard and performance standards, and they point out to fairly diverse concepts, each having a separate set of connotation. (The Virginia Standards of Learning) Discuss the positive effects and attributes of standard-based education. In standard-based education, the syllabus and units of study are distinctly delineated, comprehended by the teachers and students and conveyed to every employee, families and the community. Standard-based education system will promote fair play, foster learning of students and strengthen answerability. (Standards-Based Education: www. thompson. k12. co. us) Establishing standards is a vital and efficient learning instrument as they state distinct prospect of what every student must have an understanding and capable of doing with the language. They can be supportive to various populations like the state, districts and school, teachers, student and parents. Establishing a national standard lets to setting aside for identical chance for every student. To start with every student is evaluated against the same standards. In the absence of a universal standard and every teacher establishing his or her independent standard, the expectation of the school on their student will be diverse. As there will be no element for comparison, instruction as well as assessment cannot be unswerving. Secondly, in the event of establishing a national standard, it is obvious what the students will be learning at various stages of their education. Examination provided by the state can assess the development of the student towards achievement of the standard. The students who are failing in achieving the standards can be given preliminary, efficient help. (Why have a standards-based curriculum and what are the implications for the teaching-learning-assessment process? ) Discuss the benefits for both educator and student. Standards set students to fix particular objectives with understanding of the particular prospect and norms for success. This lets to set objectives that are attainable. The evenness of a standard based procedure currently opens opportunities to individuals. Customized learning methods, learning at one†s independent speed, identification of the specific learning that requires to happen, aids in describing the manner in which and what students are required to be aware and be capable to perform to attain the age suitable standard, as observed by several remarks. (Standard-based Education: schools. coventryschools. net) The transition to standards-based evaluation aids in building a culture of success in which every student can attain a satisfactory standard. In case of students, standard established apparent performance prospects, aiding them to comprehend what they are required to do so as to fulfill the standards. These works lets the students to exhibit their knowledge, including the norm for evaluation. This gives students and parents with valuable data regarding the performance towards fulfilling the standards. Besides, while dealing with standards based syllabus, schools will be competent to report the growth of the student towards attaining the standards by stating the yardsticks they have attained. Why have a standards-based curriculum and what are the implications for the teaching-learning-assessment process? ) Standards are very impartially described. This lets teachers to employ their ingenuity and expertise to find out which strategies function optimally with both individual as well as a group of students. (Standard-based Education: schools. coventryschools. net) Standards assist teachers devise syllabus, guidelines and evaluation on the basis of what is vital to have knowledge about. Standards gives the information required to train educators in shaping the development of students in achieving the standards, as stated in the syllabus. Teachers, the educational institution and the state are responsible for the education of the student based on the achievement of these standards. As the standards give a transparent and structured perspective for evaluation, it is thus likely to find out the degree to which the standards have been achieved. (Why have a standards-based curriculum and what are the implications for the teaching-learning-assessment process? ) How does standard-based education improve education? Standard-based education has come to be widespread political reform group as it mingles a lot of factors that concentrates on what is normally construed to be a â€Å"failing public school†. This has resulted to provide an importance on â€Å"high† standards that means improved or more challenging or â€Å"world class† standards. During 1999, the National Education Summit evaluated the standards association since 1996, deciding that the danger of deteriorating quality of education be first of all found out in A Nation at Risk in 1983 stays in 1999. The report states, the American citizen†s exhibit that it evidently comprehends that our persistent economic strength, social permanence, quality of life is dependent on our capability to radically progress our schools. The report further declares that the promises to increased standards have unambiguously come to be a central factor in a countrywide movement to enhance school performance. Of late, the research undertaken by an institute ‘Public Agenda† point out to a popular displeasure among college teachers and employers of students† fundamental skills. A second feature of standard-based improvements stresses superior performance of every student. This is a matter of fairness. Supporters of standards-based education consider that poor performing students did not have access to equal education as persistent abysmal expectations from these students have been responsible for their low performance. Therefore, it is reasoned that standard-based improvement will enhance education in case of financially deprived and minority group students by increasing the prospects. (The Virginia Standards of Learning) The rising difference in the earning levels in US will be lessened as the existing gap as regards education between low and high performing students is lowered. Standards, it is debated, â€Å"smoothens the playing field,† and will result in less sorting based for the most part on social class and ethic category which they belong. In the event students do not display achieving the standards, then in that case solution and withholding might be suitable. A third feature is the manner in which the standards are linked to rewards and encouragement. As against much of the research that has stressed the significance of child-centered, developmentally suitable procedures to education, standards-based supporters consider that rivalry and external rewards will encourage students and enhance performance. This is founded mostly on edginess with earlier â€Å"movements† aimed by educators, and the activity in other nations, together with international studies, which imply American students trailing. Fundamentally, the contention is that American schools and students require external inducements to endeavor for higher levels of performance. At present, 20 states give financial help to schools wherein students perform in a better manner on standard-based tests. Fourth, there is an increased statewide and federal evaluation and influence over schools is required. The seeming urgency is to set up a single set of standards and one wide-ranging vision in case of all students cutting across all grade levels. The thrust for national standards during the mid-1990s has resulted to an ardent involvement across the state since the stage at which standards-based educational policy is made and executed. Due to this, a lot of meetings, publications, and reports regarding standards-based improvement have been produced by organizations which are responsive to the requirements of the policy-makers of the state. (The Virginia Standards of Learning) What is the best process for developing an effective curriculum when dealing with the standard-based education. The goal of the curriculum as per the Standards is to execute certain jobs within a specific time frame. These jobs must be accomplished in a specific order. At the time a student learns a subject in this way, he/she builds on existing knowledge. It becomes simpler in case of students to go on learning, when they have a basis of knowledge. As Maurice Johnson describes in his Schema, â€Å"Structure is a fundamental feature of curriculum† (EDE 6205: Elementary School Curriculum) I think that there is an urgency on our part to perform more to assess our curriculum. In case we are adhering to the Standards as outlined, our assessment of the results has to be more proficient. The Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test — FCAT gives scanty information on the efficacy of the Standard based curriculum. To evaluate learning appropriately, it is required that we are capable of accessing what background knowledge a student is equipped and what knowledge he has amassed after the training. Iowa State University administers a program in which they supply syllabus written in accordance with the standards the school desires. The effectiveness of that particular curriculum is assessed two times in a year. Students are tested initially in the beginning of the year as also during the end of the year. This testing is done annually. This method gives a more efficient manner of estimating the quantity of learning that is being imparted. (EDE 6205: Elementary School Curriculum) FCAT in all means cannot be a productive instrument in calculating the quantum of learning which is happening. The calculations are extended out and accidental. Prior to the establishment of the Sunshine State Standards in May 1996, the primary state curriculum guidance was the Minimum Student Performance Standards. These standards gave the source for the Statewide Student Assessment Tests. With a view to raising the academic challenge in Florida, the Sunshine State Standards were formed. They were supposed to attain over the minimum capabilities to challenging academic standards. According to Tyler, while formulating any curriculum plan of instruction one should choose what the educational objective must the school look for to achieve. Subsequently, what are the educational experiences which can be given which are expected to achieve these objectives? Thirdly, the manner in which these educational experiences be efficiently managed, and lastly how we can resolve these objectives are being achieved. The Sunshine State Standards gives an excellent catapulting point in presenting course of action for curriculum development. (EDE 6205: Elementary School Curriculum) What are and justify the positive contributions of standard based education. â€Å"Need is the mother of all inventions†. (Standard-based Education: schools. coventryschools. net) This sums up a declaration made by an observer. Standard based education is countrywide crusade because of the countrywide requirement. Of course there is present and there has been extensive apprehension over the quality of public education. Several people mentioned that they identified that it was crucial that education is standardized so that regardless of the place children received education, regardless of what socio-economic or cultural backgrounds that they possess, the scope to get knowledge which is at par and good education as everybody others. One of the member commented â€Å"School A should not be deprived compared to school B. † Correctly declared by one parent, the job force has undergone a transformation. This transformation effected by an international economy and international economic rivalry has compelled our nation into the embarrassing state of being second category. Education in our nation did not modify along with the economic modification. This has brought governmental concern with education to light. Students should be given the proficiency and knowledge to compete in the world in a better manner. Standard-based Education: schools. coventryschools. net) How does the no child left behind act is associated with the standard-based education plan. Widely recognized as the ‘No Child Left Behind†, — NCLB Act of 2001 was the collective consequences of a standards-and-testing transition that was initiated with the publication of the report A Nation at Risk by the Reagan government in 1983. The movement attained due impetus with the 1989 education summit in Charlottesville, Virginia, at which the President George H. W. Bush and the governors of the nation fixed extensive performance objective for the American Schools. The ‘America 2000†³ proposal of President Bush by the end of 1991 incorporated the voluntary national testing associated with the ‘world class† standards. This provision gives rise to termination of the Bill by the opposition exerted by Republican radicals. President Clinton accorded assent to the ‘Goals 2000†³ in 1994 that provided grants to assist states in devising academic parameters. Widespread change was visualized with the 1994 reauthorization of the Elementary and secondary education Act that indicated a nationwide commitment to the standard-based reform. The re-sanction necessitated states to generate content and performance parameters in respect of the K-12 schools. (The Politics of No Child Left Behind) Congress also implemented the notion of ‘adequate yearly progress† which afterwards become the key player of liability in No Child Left Behind. However, the 1994 re-sanction started the process of devising standards and tests in most of the states. (The Politics of No Child Left Behind) The federal government anticipates more liability from state education systems and the assurance that no child will be left behind. States are to enhance the student testing, collect and disseminate subgroup consequences assuring a highly skilled teacher in every classroom and assuring that all students irrespective of their socio-economic conditions attain a proficient level of education by the 2014-2015 academic years. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) NCLB thus reinforces the federal pressure on all states to pursue a standards-based reform agenda. This incorporates a high academic standard for all students; extra supplementation to assist the students and schools to cater to such standards; enhanced suppleness for local schools in order for them to do so; and greater liability for the consequences especially calculated by the activities of the students on standardized assessments.